By “liberal art” I mean a discipline of thinking that may be shared to some degree by all men and women in their daily lives and is,in turn, mastered by a few people who practice the discipline with distinctive insight and sometimes advance it to new areas of innovative application.

说到“博雅学科”，我的意思这是一门思维的学科，可以在一定程度上让任何人来学习。相应的，也应该要有一部分人反复实践设计思维从而获得对其独特洞察力，因为这样才会把学科推进到新的创新应用领域。

  1. 这既是所谓的人人都是设计师与坚守专业设计两者均有道理的根本解释。
  4. 2021/1/20 补充
  5. ----
  6. 在这几年的专业实践中，其实我们可以把工作按照面向目标的不同而拆分。上述描述其实讲的是设计的「消费者」，与设计的「生产者」。
  7. 消费者在学习和使用「设计」上，应该尽量无障碍，或者低门槛。
  8. 而生产者则是需要具有专业水准，才能够带来新的创新应用领域。

Perhaps this is what Herbert Simon meant in The Sciences of the Artificial, one of the major works of design theory in the twentieth century, when he wrote：“the proper study of mankind is the science of design, not only as the professional component of a technical education but as a core discipline for every liberally educated man.”

赫伯特·亚历山大·西蒙 在《人工科学：复杂性面面观》写道：“设计科学是对人类的正确研究，它不仅作为技术教育中的专业组成部分，而且还是每个受过良好教育的人都应该学习的核心学科。”这是20世纪的主要设计理论之一。而我刚才提出的这个观点，可能就是西蒙的一个想法。

One may reasonably disagree with aspects of Simon’s positivist and empiricist view of design as a science (as one may disagree with the pragmatic principles that stand behind Dewey’s observation of the importance of intentional operations in modern culture), but there is little reason to disagree with the idea that all men and women may benefit from an early understanding of the disciplines of design in the contemporary world.

有人可能会不同意西蒙从实证主义和经验主义方面把设计作为一门科学的观点。因为杜威观察到的「『目的性活动』在现代文化中的重要性」建立在实用主义的原则纸上，而那些人可能对这些原则并不感冒 。但是我们几乎没有理由反对所有人都可能从目前的设计学科的初步认识中受益。

  1. 初步认识是什么？西蒙提出的那个么？

The beginning of such an understanding has already turned the study of the traditional arts and sciences toward a new engagement with the problems of everyday experience, evident in the development of diverse new products which incorporate knowledge from many fields of specialized inquiry.

这种认识的开端已经使得传统的艺术和科学的研究开始介入日常经验相关的各种问题。而这在各种新产品的开发过程中尤为明显，因为这个过程中需要将各个专业领域的知识整合起来。

  1. engagement 朗文英文解释为： an official arrangement to do something, especially one that is related to your work。即一种官方的安排。

To gain some idea of how extensively design affects contemporary life, consider the four broad areas in which design is explored throughout the world by professional designers and by many others who may not regard themselves as designers.

为了了解设计对当今生活有多广泛的影响，可以这四个主要的领域进行探究。因为全世界绝大多数专业设计师和其他许多设计爱好者都在探索这四个领域。

The first of these areas is the design of symbolic and usual communications.

第一个是符号和传达的设计（视觉传达）。

This includes the traditional work of graphic design, such as typography and advertising, book and magazine production, and scientific llustration, but has expanded into communication through photography, film, television, and computer display.

其包括传统的平面设计，如排版印刷、广告、书籍杂志的装帧印刷、专业插画等，同时也扩展到了摄影、电影、电视和数字传媒。

The area of communications design is rapidly evolving into a broad exploration of the problems of communicating information, ideas, and arguments through a new synthesis of words and images that is transforming the “bookish culture” of the past.

传达设计正迅速发展成一个宽泛的研究领域，通过融合语言和图像的新手段来探讨传达设计中的信息、思想和争论的问题。而这种手段正在转变过去「用书传达」的文化。

  1. 新的手段应该是指电子传媒这种手段

The second area is the design of material objects.

第二个领域是则是物质的设计。

  1. 应该是指工业设计、产品设计。

This includes traditional concern for the form and visual appearance of everyday products——clothing, domestic objects, tools, instruments, machinery, and vehicles——but has expanded into a more thorough and diverse interpretation of the physical, psychological, social, and cultural relationships between products and human beings.

这包括产品造型和视觉感知之间关联的传统领域，比如说服装、家具、工具、仪器、机械和交通工具。 同样的，它的边界也已经扩展到了对人机之间物质上、精神上、社会文化关系上的更彻底、更多元的理解。

  1. 比如一开始的时候就只关注功能，后来开始追求情感化设计，再后来更加考虑与社会、与文化之间的关系。
  2. 从物质到精神再到社会关系。

This area is rapidly evolving into an exploration of the problems of construction in which form and visual appearance must carry a deeper, more integrative argument that unites aspects of art, engineering and natural science, and the human sciences.

这一领域正在迅速发展为一种对于构造问题的探索。我们需要进入到形状和视觉外观更深入的、更综合的论证阶段，将艺术、工程、自然科学以及人类科学的各个方面结合起来思考。

  1. 什么是构造问题？是如何将后面的内容进行构造吗？

The third area is the design of activities and organized services, which includes the traditional management concern for logistics, combining physical resources, instrumentalities, and human beings in efficient sequences and schedules to reach specified objectives.

第三个领域则是活动和有组织的服务。其中包括传统的组织工作管理，将实体资源、设备资源和人力资源有效整合进工作流与计划表中，以达到预期或指定的目标。

  1. 这个领域感觉算是设计管理的环节？

However, this area has expanded into a concern for logical decision making and strategic planning and is rapidly evolving into an exploration of how better design thinking can contribute to achieving an organic flow of experience in concrete situations, making such experiences more intelligent, meaningful, and satisfying.

然而，这一领域已扩展到逻辑决策和战略规划的关注范围，并迅速演变为探索在具体场景下如何利用设计思维更好地实现丝滑的体验流程，并让这种经历更加容易感知、有意义和令人满意。

The central theme of this area is connections and consequences.

这一领域的中心主题是联系与次序。

  1. 个人觉得是就是因果关系。

Designers are exploring a progressively wider range of connections in everyday experience and how different types of connections affect the structure of action.

设计师们正在探索日常生活中越来越广泛的联系，以及不同类型的联系如何影响行为的结构。

  1. 这边提到的行为，之后又感觉像是交互设计的环节了。

The fourth area is the design of complex systems or environments for living, working, playing, and learning.

第四个领域则是为工作生活、学习娱乐而设计的复杂系统或环境。

  1. 感觉像是系统设计，服务设计的范畴

This includes the traditional concerns of systems engineering, architecture, and urban planning or the functional analysis of the parts of complex wholes and their subsequent integration in hierarchies.

这包括了传统的系统工程、建筑学、城市规划（或者说复杂整体的局部功能分析和再复合时的层级分析）。

  1. 在这边的分析中完全把建筑、城规这些包含到了设计学范畴中。也有一定道理

But this area has also expanded and reflects more consciousness of the central idea, thought, or value that expresses the unity of any balanced and functioning whole.

？但这个领域如今也扩大并展现了更多的意识，即表达了统一任意平衡和良性运作的整体的中心观点、思想或价值。？

  1. 反映了更多的观点，这些观点的核心是任何平衡和正常运转的整体的统一。

This area is more and more concerned with exploring the role of design in sustaining, developing, and integrating human beings into broader ecological and cultural environments, shaping these environments when desirable and possible or adapting to them when necessary.

目前人类正在维持、发展和整合更广泛的生态和文化环境，在需要的时候塑造环境，在必要的情况下适应环境。而这个领域也越来越关注探索设计在这个过程中的角色。

Reflecting on this list of the areas of design thinking, it is tempting to identify and limit specific design professions within each area——graphic designers with communication, industrial designers and engineers with material objects, designers-cum-managers with activities and services, and architects and urban planners with systems and environments.

反思以上设计思维关注的领域，很容易识别和限定出特定该领域下的设计职业类型—比如视觉传达领域的平面设计师，工业设计领域的工业设计师和工程师们、设计管理领域的设计管理者，环境系统设计下的建筑师和城市规划师。

But this would not be adequate, because these areas are not simply categories of objects that reflect the results of design.

但这并不恰当，因为这些领域的划分不是简简单单地根据设计结果进行分类的。

Properly understood and used, they are also places of invention shared by all designers, places where one discovers the dimensions of design thinking by a reconsideration of problems and solutions.

合适的理解和使用方式是——它们也是所有设计师共享的创造领域，人们在这些领域下通过重新思考问题和方案来发现设计思维的不同维度。

True, these four areas point toward certain kinds of objectivity in human experience, and the work of designers in each of these areas has created a framework for human experience in contemporary culture.

的确，这四个领域指向人类经验中的某些客观性，同时如今的设计师在这些领域中的工作也为人类的体验创造了一个框架。

But these areas are also interconnected, with no priority given to any single one.

这些领域相互关联并且平等，任何一个都不应该被优先考虑。

For example, the sequence of signs, things, actions, and thought could be regarded as an ascent from confusing parts to orderly wholes.

例如，符号、实物、行为和思想的一个次序可以被视为从「混乱的部分」到「有序的整体」的一个上升梯度。

  1. 四类学说？

Signs and images are fragments of experience that reflect our perception of material objects.

符号和图像是反映我们对实物的感知的经验片段。

Material objects, in turn, become instruments of action.

而实物又可以成为行为的工具。

Signs, things, and actions are organized in complex environments by a unitying idea or thought.

在复杂的环境中，一个统一的观念或思想把符号、实物和行为组织在一起。

But there is no reason to believe that parts and wholes must be treated in ascending rather than descending order.

但是，我们没有理由可以证实部分与整体的次序必须是上升的而不是下降。

  1. 上升和下降的概念是相对于「秩序」这个来说的。越混乱越下降，越有秩序越上升？

Parts and whole are of many types and may be defined in many ways.

毕竟零件和整体有很多种类，并且可以用多种方式加以定义。

Depending on how a designer wishes to explore and organize experience, the sequence could just as reasonably be regarded as a descent from chaotic environments to the unity provided by symbols and images.

根据设计者希望如何探索和组织经验，整个序列可以合理地被视为一种从混乱环境到统一符号的下降梯度。

  1. 比如交互设计中需要探索一个功能体系，或者体验体系。
  2. 实现逻辑应该是从大到小——战略层、范围层、架构层、交互层、表现层

In fact, signs, things, actions, and thoughts are not only interconnected, they also interpenetrate and merge in contemporary design thinking with surprising consequences for innovation.

事实上，符号，实物，行为和思想不仅是相互关联的，它们也互相渗透与融合，吸收当代的设计思维与令人惊讶的次序，从而诞生创新。

  1. 从后文中感受到的是不同的看待问题的角度可以组织成不同的次序关系？

These areas suggest the lineage of design’s past and present, as well as point to where design is headed in the future.

这些领域暗示了设计的历史与当今的脉络，以及指向未来设计的方向。

It is easy to understand that industrial designers are primarily concerned with material objects.

我们很容易理解工业设计师主要关注实体产品。

But the research reported in design literature shows that industrial designers have found new avenues of exploration by thinking about material objects in the context of signs, actions, and thoughts.

但在设计文献中报道的研究表明，工业设计师们通过在符号、行为和思想的背景下思考产品，找到了新的探索途径。

  1. 感觉可以去找找看这一类的研究。通过研究平面、行为和思想可以得到新的设计方向。

For example, some have considered material objects communicative, yielding reflections on the semantic and rhetorical aspects of products.

例如，有些人认为产品也有传达属性，从而产生了对产品的语义和修辞方面的思考。

  1. 江南大学的产品造型方法——语义、语用、语境。

Others have placed material objects in the context of experience and action, asking new questions about how products function in situations of use and how they may contribute to or inhibit the flow of activities.

另一些人把产品放在经验和行为的场景下，提出关于「产品在使用情况下如何运作」、「产品如何辅助或抑制人的行为流流程」这样的一些新的问题。

  1. 产品在使用情况下如何运作 感觉比如应放天的那一套理论就是这么去做的。
  2. 而「产品如何辅助或抑制人的行为流流程」这部分就开始引入心理学来说明知觉、认知等方面的内容。

(Of course, this is a significant shift from questions about the internal functioning of products and how the visual form of a product expresses such functioning.)

（显然，从问题层面来说，这是一个重大的转变。因为以前我们总是去问「产品内部功能如何运作」或者「产品的视觉形式如何表达」这一类问题。

  1. 内部因素转向外部因素是一个重要的改变，更多地去考虑人的因素。以做到以用户为中心的设计。可能这边更多在说的 UCD 的一些东西。

Finally, others are exploring material objects as part of larger systems, cycles, and environments, opening up a wide range of new questions and practical concerns or reenergizing old debates.

还有一些人在探索产品作为系统和环境的一部分的时候，开拓了一系列广泛的新问题和实际问题的探讨，或者重新发起一些旧的话题的讨论。

Issues include conservation and recycling, alternative technologies, elaborate simulation environments, smart products, virtual reality, artificial life, and the ethical, political, and legal dimensions of design.

问题包括节能和循环利用、替代技术、精细仿真环境、智能产品、虚拟现实、人工生命，乃至设计中的伦理、政治和法律的维度。

  1. 这个还是有点厉害了，绿色、节能、智能产品、虚拟现实这些都有存在，在帕帕纳克的设计反思中肯定也有提到。那设计的伦理、政治和法律问题这个就很有趣了。

Comparable movements are evident in each of the design professions: their primary concern begins in one area, but innovation comes when the initial selection is repositioned at another point in the framework, raising new questions and ideas.

每一个专业设计领域的行为是十分相似的：他们主要关心点从一个领域开始，但是当在初始关注的焦点移动到框架中的另一点，并提出了新的问题和想法时，创新就出现了。

  1. 总结来说就是四个领域的设计互相重新定位来获取新的认知。

Examples of this repositioning abound. For example, architecture has traditionally been concerned with buildings as large systems or environments.

这种换位思考的例子比比皆是。例如，建筑传统上把建筑物当作大型系统或环境。

For nearly twenty years, however, a group of architects have aggressively sought to reposition architecture in the context of signs,symbols, and visual communication, yielding the post modern experiment and trends such as deconstructionist architecture.

然而近二十年，一组建筑师积极寻求建筑在标志、符号、视觉传达这个情境下的新的形式和位置，产生出后现代主义的实验和趋势，比如解构主义建筑。

Oxymorons such as “deconstructionist architecture” are often the result of attempts at innovative repositioning.

类似“解构主义建筑”这种「矛盾体」往往是创新性地重新定位并进行探索的成果。 :::info Oxymoron 来自希腊语oxymoron,敏锐的傻瓜，来自oxys,锐利的，敏锐的，moron,傻瓜。后语言学家借用该词来表达矛盾修辞法。
英文解释是 two words used together which have, or seem to have, opposite meanings
简单来说就是「矛盾」，但是这里需要考虑一下为什么解构主义建筑这样的词是 Oxymoron。
建筑是结构，而修饰语是解构。所以字面上地区是矛盾体。 ::: :::info

弗兰克·盖里 的 毕尔巴鄂古根海姆美术馆

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从哲学上来说，解构主义是在1967年被哲学家雅克-德里达提出来的，但是作为一种设计风格的形成，是在20世纪80年代左右。从字面上来看，解构主义是对正统原则与正统标准的否定和批判。这里所谓的正统标准，指的是现代主义、国际主义的标准与原则。 解构主义通常采用的手法：歪扭、错位、变形。 解构主义最大的特色是：无绝对权威，个人的、非中心的；恒变的、没有预定设计的；没有次序、没有固定形态，流动的、自然表现的；没有正确与否的二元对抗标准，随心所欲；多远的、非统一化的，破碎的、凌乱地。 在审美方面，如果说现代、后现代、晚期现代建筑所关注的都是审美的“结果”，那么解构主义强调的是“过程性”，即“读者”阅读时的审美愉悦。 从哲学倾向来看，构成主义的主流与追求都是科学与理性，解构主义所追求的却是非理性与反逻辑的偶然机遇，它之所以用理性元素，其目的是通过理性元素的并置与冲突，去追求非理性的目的，向理性统治下的人们证明非理性的合理性。 总而言之：借助理性的元素，表达非理性的内涵，这就是解构建筑的基本哲学特征。 来源：建筑初学者怎么欣赏解构主义建筑？ - 知乎

:::

They indicate a desire to break old categories, as in the now familiar and accepted “constructivist art” and “action painting”.

他们表示想要打破旧的类别，就像现在熟悉的和被广泛接受的“构成艺术”和“行为绘画”一样。

The test, of course, is whether experiments in innovation yield productive results, judged by individuals and by society as a whole.

当然，这种测试的结果在创新领域的有效性是由人们和社会一起判断的。

Some experiments have fallen like dead leaves at the first frost, swept away to merciful oblivion.

有些实验在初冬时的枯叶一样凋零，被世间遗忘。

At present, the results of deconstructionist architecture are mixed, but the experiment will continue until individuals or groups reposition the problems of architecture and shift general attention toward new questions.

目前，解构主义建筑的结果是多方面的，但实验将持续下去，直到个体或群体将建筑的问题再次重新定位，或者把注意力转移到新问题上为止。

  1. 其实个人感觉建筑学更多都在研究参数化设计，相当于是把注意力转移到了新的问题上吗？

A strikingly different repositioning is now beginning in the profession of graphic design and visual communication.

一个显著不同的重新定位现在开始在平面设计和视觉传达行业。

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, graphic design was oriented toward personal expression through image making.

第十九世纪末第二十世纪初，平面设计从图形创作转向个人表达。

It was an extension of the expressiveness of the fine arts, pressed into commercial or scientific service.

艺术表现力延伸向了商业或规范化的服务。

This was modified under the influence of “communication theory” and semiotics when the role of the graphic designer was shifted toward that of an interpreter of messages.

这个过程在传达理论和符号学的影响下被逐渐修正。平面设计师的角色也逐渐转向信息的传达者。

  1. 简单来说就是从一个艺术家变成一个设计师。从以前为自己表达逐渐转变成为他人表达。比如设计 LOGO、名片、海报等等

For example, the graphic designer introduced emotional colorings of corporate or public “messages” or, in technical terms, the graphic designer “coded” the corporate message.

例如，平面设计师利用色彩为企业传达感情基调，或者其他需要对外传达的信息。从技术的话来说，平面设计师「编码」了客户想要传达的信息。

As a result, the products of graphic design were viewed as “things” or “entities”（material texts) to be “decoded” by spectators.

结果就是平面设计的产品（可以被视为实体，物理材料），被信息接受者“解码”。

Recently, however, a new approach in graphic design thinking has begun to question the essentially linguistic or grammatical approach of communications theory and semiotics by regarding visual communication as persuasive argumentation.

然而，近年来，平面设计思维中的一种新观点开始质疑基于语义学的传达理论和符号学的方法论是不是最本质的东西，他们认为视觉传达本身才是为有说服力的依据。

  1. 这个有趣？是不是在平面设计法则之前就是用语义学的方式在做传达设计呢？

As this work unfolds, it will likely seek to reposition graphic design within the dynamic flow of experience and communication, emphasizing rhetorical relationships among graphic designers, audiences, and the content of communication.

这部分展开来说的话，它可能会寻求在经验和传达的动态流程中重新定位平面设计，强调平面设计师、受众和传达内容之间的修辞关系。

  1. 修辞关系是一个很奇特的词。

In this situation, designers would no longer be viewed as individuals who decorate messages, but as communicators who seek to discover convincing arguments by means of a new synthesis of images and words.

在这种情况下，设计师将不再被看作是“装饰”信息的人，而是作为一个沟通者，他们试图通过一种新的图像和文本的综合方法来发现有说服力的证据。

  1. 这里的装饰可以认为是单方面的设计信息。而后者的话，就是从沟通者的角度出发，来思考受众需要什么样的信息，通过一套方法来寻找出最容易让受众接受的信息处理手段。

In turn, this will shift attention toward audiences as active participants in reaching conclusions rather than passive recipients of preformed messages.

于是，这将会使得设计师的注意力转移到观众身上，寻求他们的积极参与以达成结果，而不是被动地接受预先形成的信息。

  1. 比如现在的营销可以从文案出发思考用户需求来做文案设计，平面设计是如何进行的？观察用户？

What works for movements within a design profession also works for individual designers and their clients in addressing specific problems.

在设计行业中的运动发生的这种观点也适用于独立设计师和他们客户解决具体问题。

Managers of a large retail chain were puzzled that customers had difficulty navigating through their stores to find merchandise.

举个例子，在一家大型零售连锁店中，顾客很难在店中找到商品，管理者对此十分困扰。

Traditional graphic design yielded larger signs but no apparent improvement in navigation the larger the sign, the more likely people were to ignore it.

他们用了传统的平面设计方法，做更大的符号，但引导效果没有明显的改善。因为越大的标志，人们就越可能忽视它。

Finally, a design consultant suggested that the problem should be studied from the perspective of the flow of customer experience.

最后，一位设计咨询顾问建议说应该从顾客体验流程的角度来研究这个问题。

After a period of observing shoppers walking through stores, the consultant concluded that people often navigate among different sections of a store by looking for the most familiar and representative examples of a particular type of product.

经过一段时间观察购物者在商店中的行动，顾问得出结论：人们在店里逛的时候，经常会寻找最熟悉和具有代表性的特定类型的产品来识别不同区域。

This led to a change in display strategy, placing those products that people are most likely to identify in prominent positions.

这改变了商店的展示策略——他们将顾客最可能识别的产品放置在显眼的位置。

Although this is a minor example, it does illustrate a double repositioning of the design problem: first, from signs to action, with an insight that people look for familiar products to guide their movements; second ld, from action to signs, a redesign of display strategy to employ products themselves as signs or clues to the organization of a store.

虽然这是一个很小的例子，但它说明了设计问题的一个双向重定位过程：首先，通过对人们寻找熟悉的产品来指导他们的动作的洞察，将符号领域转向行为领域；再是从行为领域转向符号领域，重新设计展示策略，将使用的产品作为标志或线索作为整个商店的组织模式。

There are so many examples of conceptual repositioning in design that it is surprising no one has recognized the systematic pattern of invention that lies behind design thinking in the twentieth century.

在设计中有很多概念重定位的例子，但是令人惊讶的是，还没有人认识到在二十世纪设计思维背后的系统范式。

The pattern is found not in a set of categories but in a rich，diverse, and changing set of placements, such as those identified by signs, things, actions, and thoughts.

这种模式不是在一组类别中找到的，而是在一系列丰富、多样和不断变化的定位中找到的，如通过符号、产品、行为和思想的定位。

  1. 作者从设计本身的四个领域发现了设计思维的范式,并在后面推广到了其他部分。

Understanding the difference between a category and a placement is essential if design thinking is to be regarded as more than a series of creative accidents.

如果不想把设计思维当成创新上一系列的巧合，那么理解「类目」和「定位」之间的区别是很重要的。

  1. 一个类目意味着是同一类的东西。而定位则是完全不同的东西。
  2. 比如物理里面的量子物理、XX 物理、XX 物理都是属于一个类目。而物理、化学、科学则是不同的「定位」。
  3. 感觉定位可能有个更加适合的词叫做「语境」

Categories have fixed meanings that are accepted within the framework of a theory or a philosophy, and serve as the basis for analyzing what already exists.

分类有明确的意义，在理论或哲学的框架内可被接受，并可以作为已有的分析基础。

Placements have boundaries to shape and constrain meaning, but are not rigidly fixed and determinate.

「定位」有塑造和容纳意义的边界，但不是固定不变的。

  1. 语境的范围？

The boundary of a placement gives a context or orientation to thinking, but the application to a specific situation can generate a new perception of that situation and ,hence, a new possibility to be tested.

「定位」的边界给思考提供了一个情景和方向，但是应用到一个特定的情境可以产生对这种情况的新的感知，因此就会产生一种新的可待测试的可能性。

  1. 比如说我们把平面设计放到行为学的角度去思考，我们就可以用行为学的思考的边界来限定平面设计的内容。
  2. 有点说像是滤镜的概念。

Therefore, placements are sources of new ideas and possibilities when applied to problems in concrete circumstances.

因此，当应用于具体情况的问题时，「定位」是新点子和可能性的来源。

As an ordered or systematic approach to the invention of possibilities, the doctrine of placements provides a useful means of understanding what many designers describe as the intuitive or serendipitous quality of their work.

作为一个关于「创造可能性」的有规律或系统的方法，「定位」理论提供了一个有用的方法来理解许多设计师描述的他们通过直觉或偶然做出的作品。

Individual designers often possess a personal set of placements, developed and tested by experience.

个人设计师通常拥有一套个人的，通过经验来发展和测试的定位集。

  1. 24) Some placements have become so common in twentieth-century design that they hardly attract attention.
  2. 有些「定位」在20世纪的设计中变得如此普遍，以至于它们很难吸引人们的注意。
  4. Nonetheless, such placements are classic features of design thinking, and in the hands of a skilled designer retain their inventive potential. 
  5. 虽然说这些「定位」是设计思维的经典特征，但是在一个熟练的设计师手中它们仍然很有发明的潜力。
  7. Designer Jay Doblin sometimes employed a cascade of placements stemming from the basic placement “intrinsic/extrinsic. " 
  8. 设计师Jay Doblin有时会采用串联的一组「定位」
  11. Doblin's placements serve as a heuristic device to reveal the factors in design thinking and product development.
  12. Other placements are described by Doblin in “Innovation, A Cook Book Approach“, n. D. (Typewitten.)
  15. With different intent, Ezio Manzini recently argued that the designer needs two mental instruments with opposite qualities to examine a design situation: a microscope and a macroscope. The mental microscope is for examining"how things work, down to the smallest details, " particularly in regard to advances in materials science. A further series of placements fill out the microscope to give it efficacy. See Ezio Manzini, The Materials of Invention: Materials and Design  (Cambridge: M. I. T. Press,1989),58.
  16. 这是其中一个注解，等下再翻译下。

The inventiveness of the designer lies in a natural or cultivated and artful ability to return to those placements and apply them to a new situation, discovering aspects of the situation that affect the final design.

设计师的创造性在于利用一种自然的、文化性的、巧妙的能力来得到一些「定位」的方法，并将这些方法应用到一种新的情境中，从而发现影响最终设计的情况的各个方面。

  1. 这里的话就把「定位」又理解成一种很环节性的内容了？

What is regarded as the designer’s style, then, is sometimes more than just a personal preference for certain types of visual forms, materials, or techniques; it is a characteristic way of seeing possibilities through conceptual placements.

那什么是设计师的风格呢？很多时候，这不是一种视觉形式、材料或者技术的个人偏好；而是一种通过特定「定位」后看到设计可能性的独特方式。

However, when a designer’s conceptual placements become categories of thinking, the result can be mannered imitations of an earlier invention that are no longer relevant to the discovery of specific possibilities in a new situation.

然而，当设计师概念中的「定位」成为「类目」上的思考时，那结果可能是对早期创造物的矫饰模仿，而这种新发明不再与新情况下特定可能性的发现相关。

  1. 所以这种更像是渐进式创新与突破式创新。「类目」的思考方式相当于一条线往里深入。而「定位」的方法则是横向变化。
  2. 所以两种思维模式，一种叫纵向思维，一种叫横向思维，对于设计师来说都必须好好学习。

Ideas are then forced onto a situation rather than discovered in the particularities and novel possibilities of that situation.

设计师会把想法强加到这个场景中，而不是从这个场景的特殊性和新的可能性中发现一些好的想法。

  1. 如果用作设计竞赛的方式，比如老人 小孩，这样的分类，然后去思考，这种逻辑是不是就是「分类」呢？往往会想不到好的点子。
  2. 但是如果换一种方式去思考，不是从问题出发。比如采用「无意识设计」，或者另外一种

For the practicing designer, placements are primary and categories are secondary.

对于在工作的设计师来说，「定位」是主要的方法，「分类」是次级的方法。

The reverse holds true for design history, theory, and criticism, except at those moments when a new direction for inquiry is opened.

设计历史、理论和批评则是相反，只有在出现新的研究方向时除外。

At such times, a repositioning of the problems of design, such as a change in the subject matter to be addressed, the methods to be employed, or the principles to be explored, occurs by means of placements.

在这种情况下，设计问题的重定位，例如将要变化解决的主题的位置、采用的方法、或要探索的原则，都应该要通过「定位」的方法来实现。

Then, history, theory, or criticism are “redesigned” for the individual investigator and sometimes for groups of investigators.

历史、理论或批判被个别调查员或者研究小组重新思考时也是使用了「定位」的方法。

  1. 比如我们重新思考设计历史的时候，如果把它置于「人工科学」的语境之下，我们会发现设计史是有问题的。而且没法解释整个设计思维的发展。

As the discipline of design studies adds a reflective and philosophic dimension to design history, theory, and criticism, positive consequences are possible.

由于设计研究的学科增加了对设计历史、理论和批评的反思和哲学的维度，这种重定位思考的结果可能是积极的。

  1. 这个 positive consequences 是什么意思呢？

Historians, for example, may reconsider the placement of design history as it has been practiced throughout most of the twentieth century and work to discover other innovative possibilities.

例如，目前的设计史已经贯穿了差不都整个二十世纪。那史学家可能会重新考虑设计历史的「定位」并致力于发现其他创新的可能性。

Discontent with the results of current design history suggests that new repositionings are called for if the discipline is to retain vitality and relevance to contemporary problems. “

对目前的设计历史的结果不满的人认为，如果设计学科要保持活力，并与联系上当代问题的话，那么我们必须对设计历史做一次新的重定位。

The doctrine of placements will require further development if it is to be recognized as a tool in design studies and design thinking, but it can also be a surprisingly precise way of addressing conceptual space and the non-dimensional images from which concrete possibilities emerge for testing in objective circumstances.

如果定位理论要变成设计研究和设计思维的工具的话，这个理论将需要进一步发展。但它也可以是一种非常精确的用来确定概念空间和无维映像的方法。具体的可能性从这些概念空间中出现，并在客观环境中进行测试。

  1. emerge from

The natural and spontaneous use of placements by designers is already evident; an explicit understanding of the doctrine of placements will make it an important element of design as a liberal art.

设计师自然地、自发地使用「定位」是十分很明显的；对定位理论的透彻理解将使它成为博雅学科中的一个重要元素。

All men and women require a liberal art of design to live well in the complexity of the framework based in signs, things, actions, and thoughts.

为了在符号、实体、行为和思想这个复杂框架下更好地地生活，每个人都应该接受设计的博雅学科。

On one hand, such an art will enable individuals to participate more directly in this framework and contribute to its development.

一方面，这种教育将使个人能够更直接地参与这一框架，并有助于其发展。

On the other, professional designers could be regarded as masters in its exploration.

另一方面，专业设计师可以被视为在探索该领域的大师。

The ability of designers to discover new relationships among signs, things, actions, and thoughts is one indication that design is not merely a technical specialization but a new liberal art.

设计师探索符号、实体、行为和思想之间的新关系的能力象征着设计不仅仅是一门高度专业化的职业，更是一门新的博雅学科。