- CONTENTS
- I. INTRODUCTORY
- II. ELEMENTARY RULES OF USAGE
- 1. Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding ‘s.
- 2. In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last.
- 3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas.
- 4. Place a comma before a conjunction introducing a co-ordinate clause.
- 5. Do not join independent clauses by a comma.
- 6. Do not break sentences in two.
- 7. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject.
- III. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION
- 8. Make the paragraph the unit of composition: one paragraph to each topic.
- 9. As a rule, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence, end it in conformity with the beginning.
- 10. Use the active voice.
- 11. Put statements in positive form.
- 12. Use definite, specific, concrete language.
- 13. Omit needless words.
- 14. Avoid a succession of loose sentences:
- 15. Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form.
- 16. Keep related words together.
- 17. In summaries, keep to one tense.
- 18. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end.
- IV. A FEW MATTERS OF FORM
- V. WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS COMMONLY MISUSED
- VI. SPELLING
- VII. EXERCISES ON CHAPTERS II AND III
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ELEMENTS OF STYLE
BY
PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH
IN
CORNELL UNIVERSITY
HARCOURT, BRACE AND COMPANY
COPYRIGHT, 1918, 1919, BY
WILLIAM STRUNK, JR.
COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY
HARCOURT, BRACE AND HOWE, INC.
THE MAPLE PRESS YORK PA
CONTENTS
| | | | Page | | —- | —- | —- | —- | | I. | Introductory | | 5 | | II. | Elementary Rules of Usage | | 7 | | | 1. | Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding | 7 | | | 2. | In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last | 7 | | | 3. | Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas | 8 | | | 4. | Place a comma before a conjunction introducing a co-ordinate clause | 10 | | | 5. | Do not join independent clauses by a comma | 11 | | | 6. | Do not break sentences in two | 12 | | | 7. | A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject | 13 | | III. | Elementary Principles of Composition | | 15 | | | 8. | Make the paragraph the unit of composition: one paragraph to each topic | 15 | | | 9. | As a rule, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence; end it in conformity with the beginning | 17 | | | 10. | Use the active voice | 19 | | | 11. | Put statements in positive form | 21 | | | 12. | Use definite, specific, concrete language | 22 | | | 13. | Omit needless words | 24 | | | 14. | Avoid a succession of loose sentences | 25 | | | 15. | Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form | 26 | | | 16. | Keep related words together | 28 | | | 17. | In summaries, keep to one tense | 29 | | | 18. | Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end | 31 | | IV. | A Few Matters of Form | | 33 | | V. | Words and Expressions Commonly Misused | | 36 | | VI. | Spelling | | 48 | | VII. | Exercises on Chapters II and III | | 50 |
I. INTRODUCTORY
This book aims to give in brief space the principal requirements
of plain English style. It aims to lighten the
task of instructor and student by concentrating attention
(in Chapters II and III) on a few essentials, the rules of
usage and principles of composition most commonly violated.
In accordance with this plan it lays down three
rules for the use of the comma, instead of a score or more,
and one for the use of the semicolon, in the belief that
these four rules provide for all the internal punctuation
that is required by nineteen sentences out of twenty.
Similarly, it gives in Chapter III only those principles of
the paragraph and the sentence which are of the widest
application. The book thus covers only a small portion of
the field of English style. The experience of its writer has
been that once past the essentials, students profit most by
individual instruction based on the problems of their own
work, and that each instructor has his own body of theory,
which he may prefer to that offered by any textbook.
The numbers of the sections may be used as references
in correcting manuscript.
The writer’s colleagues in the Department of English in
Cornell University have greatly helped him in the preparation
of his Mr. George McLane Wood has
kindly consented to the inclusion under Rule 10 of some
material from his .
The following books are recommended for reference or
further study: in connection with Chapters II and IV,
F. Howard Collins, (Henry Frowde);
Chicago University Press, ; T. L. De
Vinne, (The Century Company);
Horace Hart, (Oxford
University Press); George McLane Wood, (United
States Geological Survey); in connection with Chapters
III and V, (Oxford University Press);
Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch, (Putnam),
especially the chapter, Interlude on Jargon; George
McLane Wood, (United States
Geological Survey); John Lesslie Hall,
(Scott, Foresman and Co.); James P. Kelley, (Little, Brown and Co.). In these will be
found full discussions of many points here briefly treated
and an abundant store of illustrations to supplement those
given in this book.
It is an old observation that the best writers sometimes
disregard the rules of rhetoric. When they do so, however,
the reader will usually find in the sentence some compensating
merit, attained at the cost of the violation. Unless he
is certain of doing as well, he will probably do best to follow
the rules. After he has learned, by their guidance, to
write plain English adequate for everyday uses, let him
look, for the secrets of style, to the study of the masters
of literature.
II. ELEMENTARY RULES OF USAGE
1. Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding ‘s.
Follow this rule whatever the final consonant. Thus
write,
Charles’s friend
Burns’s poems
the witch’s malice
This is the usage of the United States Government
Printing Office and of the Oxford University Press.
Exceptions are the possessive of ancient proper names
in and , the possessive , and such forms as
, . But such forms
as , , are commonly
replaced by
the heel of Achilles
the laws of Moses
the temple of Isis
The pronominal possessives , , , , and
have no apostrophe.
2. In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last.
Thus write,
red, white, and blue
gold, silver, or copper
He opened the letter, read it, and made a note of its contents.
This is also the usage of the Government Printing
Office and of the Oxford University Press.
In the names of business firms the last comma is omitted,
as,
Brown, Shipley & Co.
3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas.
The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed for time, is to
travel on foot.
This rule is difficult to apply; it is frequently hard to
decide whether a single word, such as , or a brief
phrase, is or is not parenthetic. If the interruption to the
flow of the sentence is but slight, the writer may safely
omit the commas. But whether the interruption be slight
or considerable, he must never insert one comma and omit
the other. Such punctuation as
Marjorie’s husband, Colonel Nelson paid us a visit yesterday,
or
My brother you will be pleased to hear, is now in perfect health,
is indefensible.
If a parenthetic expression is preceded by a conjunction,
place the first comma before the conjunction, not after it.
He saw us coming, and unaware that we had learned of his treachery,
greeted us with a smile.
Always to be regarded as parenthetic and to be enclosed
between commas (or, at the end of the sentence, between
comma and period) are the following:
(1) the year, when forming part of a date, and the day
of the month, when following the day of the week:
February to July, 1916.
April 6, 1917.
Monday, November 11, 1918.
(2) the abbreviations and
(3) non-restrictive relative clauses, that is, those which
do not serve to identify or define the antecedent noun, and
similar clauses introduced by conjunctions indicating time
or place.
The audience, which had at first been indifferent, became more and
more interested.
In this sentence the clause introduced by does not
serve to tell which of several possible audiences is meant;
what audience is in question is supposed to be already
known. The clause adds, parenthetically, a statement supplementing
that in the main clause. The sentence is virtually
a combination of two statements which might have
been made independently:
The audience had at first been indifferent. It became more and
more interested.
Compare the restrictive relative clause, not set off by commas,
in the sentence,
The candidate who best meets these requirements will obtain the
place.
Here the clause introduced by does serve to tell which of
several possible candidates is meant; the sentence cannot be
split up into two independent statements.
The difference in punctuation in the two sentences following
is based on the same principle:
Nether Stowey, where Coleridge wrote , is a few miles from Bridgewater.
The day will come when you will admit your mistake.
Nether Stowey is completely identified by its name; the
statement about Coleridge is therefore supplementary and
parenthetic. The day spoken of is identified only by the
dependent clause, which is therefore restrictive.
Similar in principle to the enclosing of parenthetic expressions
between commas is the setting off by commas of
phrases or dependent clauses preceding or following the
main clause of a sentence.
Partly by hard fighting, partly by diplomatic skill, they enlarged
their dominions to the east, and rose to royal rank with the possession
of Sicily, exchanged afterwards for Sardinia.
Other illustrations may be found in sentences quoted under
Rules 4, 5, 6, 7, 16, and 18.
The writer should be careful not to set off independent
clauses by commas: see under Rule 5.
4. Place a comma before a conjunction introducing a co-ordinate clause.
The early records of the city have disappeared, and the story of its
first years can no longer be reconstructed.
The situation is perilous, but there is still one chance of escape.
Sentences of this type, isolated from their context, may
seem to be in need of rewriting. As they make complete
sense when the comma is reached, the second clause has
the appearance of an afterthought. Further, is the
least specific of connectives. Used between independent
clauses, it indicates only that a relation exists between
them without defining that relation. In the example
above, the relation is that of cause and result. The two
sentences might be rewritten:
As the early records of the city have disappeared, the story of its first
years can no longer be reconstructed.
Although the situation is perilous, there is still one chance of escape.
Or the subordinate clauses might be replaced by phrases:
Owing to the disappearance of the early records of the city, the story
of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.
In this perilous situation, there is still one chance of escape.
But a writer may err by making his sentences too
uniformly compact and periodic, and an occasional loose
sentence prevents the style from becoming too formal and
gives the reader a certain relief. Consequently, loose
sentences of the type first quoted are common in easy,
unstudied writing. But a writer should be careful not to
construct too many of his sentences after this pattern
(see Rule 14).
Two-part sentences of which the second member is
introduced by (in the sense of ), , , , and
(in the sense of ) likewise require a
comma before the conjunction.
If the second member is introduced by an adverb, a
semicolon, not a comma, is required (see Rule 5). The
connectives and may be used either as adverbs or as
conjunctions, accordingly as the second clause is felt to be
co-ordinate or subordinate; consequently either mark of
punctuation may be justified. But these uses of (equivalent
to or to ) are somewhat colloquial
and should, as a rule, be avoided in writing. A simple correction,
usually serviceable, is to omit the word and begin
the first clause with or :
| I had never been in the place before; so I had difficulty in finding my way about. | As I had never been in the place before, I had difficulty in finding my way about. | | —- | —- |
If a dependent clause, or an introductory phrase requiring
to be set off by a comma, precedes the second independent
clause, no comma is needed after the conjunction.
The situation is perilous, but if we are prepared to act promptly,
there is still one chance of escape.
When the subject is the same for both clauses and is
expressed only once, a comma is required if the connective
is . If the connective is , the comma should be
omitted if the relation between the two statements is close
or immediate.
I have heard his arguments, but am still unconvinced.
He has had several years’ experience and is thoroughly competent.
5. Do not join independent clauses by a comma.
If two or more clauses, grammatically complete and not
joined by a conjunction, are to form a single compound
sentence, the proper mark of punctuation is a semicolon.
Stevenson’s romances are entertaining; they are full of exciting
adventures.
It is nearly half past five; we cannot reach town before dark.
It is of course equally correct to write the above as two
sentences each, replacing the semicolons by periods.
Stevenson’s romances are entertaining. They are full of exciting
adventures.
It is nearly half past five. We cannot reach town before dark.
If a conjunction is inserted the proper mark is a comma
(Rule 4).
Stevenson’s romances are entertaining, for they are full of exciting
adventures.
It is nearly half past five, and we cannot reach town before dark.
A comparison of the three forms given above will show
clearly the advantage of the first. It is, at least in the
examples given, better than the second form, because it
suggests the close relationship between the two statements
in a way that the second does not attempt, and better than
the third, because briefer and therefore more forcible.
Indeed it may be said that this simple method of indicating
relationship between statements is one of the most useful
devices of composition. The relationship, as above, is
commonly one of cause or of consequence.
Note that if the second clause is preceded by an adverb,
such as , , , , or , and
not by a conjunction, the semicolon is still required.
Two exceptions to the rule may be admitted. If the
clauses are very short, and are alike in form, a comma is
usually permissible:
Man proposes, God disposes.
The gate swung apart, the bridge fell, the portcullis was drawn up.
Note that in these examples the relation is not one of cause
or consequence. Also in the colloquial form of expression,
I hardly knew him, he was so changed,
a comma, not a semicolon, is required. But this form of
expression is inappropriate in writing, except in the dialogue
of a story or play, or perhaps in a familiar letter.
6. Do not break sentences in two.
In other words, do not use periods for commas.
I met them on a Cunard liner several years ago. Coming home
from Liverpool to New York.
He was an interesting talker. A man who had traveled all over the
world and lived in half a dozen countries.
In both these examples, the first period should be replaced
by a comma, and the following word begun with a small
letter.
It is permissible to make an emphatic word or expression
serve the purpose of a sentence and to punctuate it
accordingly:
Again and again he called out. No reply.
The writer must, however, be certain that the emphasis is
warranted, and that he will not be suspected of a mere
blunder in syntax or in punctuation.
Rules 3, 4, 5, and 6 cover the most important principles
in the punctuation of ordinary sentences; they should be
so thoroughly mastered that their application becomes
second nature.
7. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject.
Walking slowly down the road, he saw a woman accompanied by two children. The word refers to the subject of the sentence, not to the woman. If the writer wishes to make it refer to the woman, he must recast the sentence: He saw a woman accompanied by two children, walking slowly down the road. Participial phrases preceded by a conjunction or by a preposition, nouns in apposition, adjectives, and adjective phrases come under the same rule if they begin the sentence.
| On arriving in Chicago, his friends met him at the station. | When he arrived (or, On his arrival) in Chicago, his friends met him at the station. | | —- | —- | | A soldier of proved valor, they entrusted him with the defence of the city. | A soldier of proved valor, he was entrusted with the defence of the city. | | Young and inexperienced, the task seemed easy to me. | Young and inexperienced, I thought the task easy. | | Without a friend to counsel him, the temptation proved irresistible. | Without a friend to counsel him, he found the temptation irresistible. |
Sentences violating this rule are often ludicrous.
Being in a dilapidated condition, I was able to buy the house very
cheap.
Wondering irresolutely what to do next, the clock struck twelve.
III. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION
8. Make the paragraph the unit of composition: one paragraph to each topic.
If the subject on which you are writing is of slight
extent, or if you intend to treat it very briefly, there may
be no need of subdividing it into topics. Thus a brief
description, a brief summary of a literary work, a brief
account of a single incident, a narrative merely outlining
an action, the setting forth of a single idea, any one of these
is best written in a single paragraph. After the paragraph
has been written, examine it to see whether subdivision
will not improve it.
Ordinarily, however, a subject requires subdivision into
topics, each of which should be made the subject of a
paragraph. The object of treating each topic in a paragraph
by itself is, of course, to aid the reader. The beginning
of each paragraph is a signal to him that a new step
in the development of the subject has been reached.
The extent of subdivision will vary with the length of
the composition. For example, a short notice of a book or
poem might consist of a single paragraph. One slightly
longer might consist of two paragraphs:
- A. Account of the work.
- B. Critical discussion.
A report on a poem, written for a class in literature, might consist of seven paragraphs:
- A. Facts of composition and publication.
- B. Kind of poem; metrical form.
- C. Subject.
- D. Treatment of subject.
- E. For what chiefly remarkable.
- F. Wherein characteristic of the writer.
- G. Relationship to other works.
The contents of paragraphs C and D would vary with the
poem. Usually, paragraph C would indicate the actual or
imagined circumstances of the poem (the situation), if
these call for explanation, and would then state the subject
and outline its development. If the poem is a narrative in
the third person throughout, paragraph C need contain no
more than a concise summary of the action. Paragraph D
would indicate the leading ideas and show how they are
made prominent, or would indicate what points in the
narrative are chiefly emphasized.
A novel might be discussed under the heads:
- A. Setting.
- B. Plot.
- C. Characters.
- D. Purpose.
An historical event might be discussed under the heads:
- A. What led up to the event.
- B. Account of the event.
- C. What the event led up to.
In treating either of these last two subjects, the writer
would probably find it necessary to subdivide one or more
of the topics here given.
As a rule, single sentences should not be written or
printed as paragraphs. An exception may be made of
sentences of transition, indicating the relation between the
parts of an exposition or argument. Frequent exceptions
are also necessary in textbooks, guidebooks, and other
works in which many topics are treated briefly.
In dialogue, each speech, even if only a single word, is a
paragraph by itself; that is, a new paragraph begins with
each change of speaker. The application of this rule,
when dialogue and narrative are combined, is best learned
from examples in well-printed works of fiction.
9. As a rule, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence, end it in conformity with the beginning.
Again, the object is to aid the reader. The practice here
recommended enables him to discover the purpose of each
paragraph as he begins to read it, and to retain this purpose
in mind as he ends it. For this reason, the most generally
useful kind of paragraph, particularly in exposition and
argument, is that in which
(a) the topic sentence comes at or near the beginning;
(b) the succeeding sentences explain or establish or
develop the statement made in the topic sentence; and
(c) the final sentence either emphasizes the thought of
the topic sentence or states some important consequence.
Ending with a digression, or with an unimportant detail,
is particularly to be avoided.
If the paragraph forms part of a larger composition, its
relation to what precedes, or its function as a part of the
whole, may need to be expressed. This can sometimes be
done by a mere word or phrase (; ; ) in the topic sentence. Sometimes, however,
it is expedient to precede the topic sentence by one or more
sentences of introduction or transition. If more than one
such sentence is required, it is generally better to set apart
the transitional sentences as a separate paragraph.
According to the writer’s purpose, he may, as indicated
above, relate the body of the paragraph to the topic sentence
in one or more of several different ways. He may
make the meaning of the topic sentence clearer by restating
it in other forms, by defining its terms, by denying the
contrary, by giving illustrations or specific instances; he
may establish it by proofs; or he may develop it by showing
its implications and consequences. In a long paragraph,
he may carry out several of these processes.
Now, to be properly enjoyed, a walking tour should be gone upon
alone. If you go in a company, or even in pairs, it is no longer a walking
tour in anything but name; it is something else and more in the
nature of a picnic. A walking tour should be gone upon alone, because
freedom is of the essence; because you should be able to stop
and go on, and follow this way or that, as the freak takes you; and because
you must have your own pace, and neither trot alongside a
champion walker, nor mince in time with a girl. And you must be
open to all impressions and let your thoughts take colour from what
you see. You should be as a pipe for any wind to play upon. “I
cannot see the wit,” says Hazlitt, “of walking and talking at the
same time. When I am in the country, I wish to vegetate like the
country,” which is the gist of all that can be said upon the matter.
There should be no cackle of voices at your elbow, to jar on the
meditative silence of the morning. And so long as a man is reasoning
he cannot surrender himself to that fine intoxication that comes
of much motion in the open air, that begins in a sort of dazzle and sluggishness
of the brain, and ends in a peace that passes comprehension.—Stevenson,
.
Topic sentence. The meaning made clearer by denial of the contrary.
The topic sentence repeated, in abridged form, and supported by
three reasons; the meaning of the third (“you must have your own
pace”) made clearer by denying the contrary. A fourth reason, stated
in two forms. The same reason, stated in still another form. The
same reason as stated by Hazlitt. Repetition, in paraphrase, of the
quotation from Hazlitt. Final statement of the fourth reason, in
language amplified and heightened to form a strong conclusion.
It was chiefly in the eighteenth century that a very different conception
of history grew up. Historians then came to believe that
their task was not so much to paint a picture as to solve a problem;
to explain or illustrate the successive phases of national growth,
prosperity, and adversity. The history of morals, of industry, of
intellect, and of art; the changes that take place in manners or beliefs;
the dominant ideas that prevailed in successive periods; the rise, fall,
and modification of political constitutions; in a word, all the conditions
of national well-being became the subject of their works. They
sought rather to write a history of peoples than a history of kings.
They looked especially in history for the chain of causes and effects.
They undertook to study in the past the physiology of nations, and
hoped by applying the experimental method on a large scale to deduce
some lessons of real value about the conditions on which the welfare
of society mainly depend.—Lecky, .
Topic sentence. The meaning of the topic sentence made clearer;
the new conception of history defined. The definition expanded. The
definition explained by contrast. The definition supplemented: another
element in the new conception of history. Conclusion: an important
consequence of the new conception of history.
In narration and description the paragraph sometimes
begins with a concise, comprehensive statement serving to
hold together the details that follow.
The breeze served us admirably.
The campaign opened with a series of reverses.
The next ten or twelve pages were filled with a curious set of entries.
But this device, if too often used, would become a mannerism.
More commonly the opening sentence simply
indicates by its subject with what the paragraph is to be
principally concerned.
At length I thought I might return towards the stockade.
He picked up the heavy lamp from the table and began to explore.
Another flight of steps, and they emerged on the roof.
The brief paragraphs of animated narrative, however,
are often without even this semblance of a topic sentence.
The break between them serves the purpose of a rhetorical
pause, throwing into prominence some detail of the action.
10. Use the active voice.
The active voice is usually more direct and vigorous than
the passive:
I shall always remember my first visit to Boston.
This is much better than
My first visit to Boston will always be remembered by me.
The latter sentence is less direct, less bold, and less concise.
If the writer tries to make it more concise by omitting
“by me,”
My first visit to Boston will always be remembered,
it becomes indefinite: is it the writer, or some person
undisclosed, or the world at large, that will always remember
this visit?
This rule does not, of course, mean that the writer should
entirely discard the passive voice, which is frequently
convenient and sometimes necessary.
The dramatists of the Restoration are little esteemed to-day.
Modern readers have little esteem for the dramatists of the
Restoration.
The first would be the right form in a paragraph on the
dramatists of the Restoration; the second, in a paragraph
on the tastes of modern readers. The need of making a
particular word the subject of the sentence will often, as
in these examples, determine which voice is to be used.
As a rule, avoid making one passive depend directly upon
another.
| Gold was not allowed to be exported. | It was forbidden to export gold (The export of gold was prohibited). | | —- | —- | | He has been proved to have been seen entering the building. | It has been proved that he was seen to enter the building. |
In both the examples above, before correction, the word
properly related to the second passive is made the subject
of the first.
A common fault is to use as the subject of a passive
construction a noun which expresses the entire action, leaving
to the verb no function beyond that of completing the
sentence.
| A survey of this region was made in 1900. | This region was surveyed in 1900. | | —- | —- | | Mobilization of the army was rapidly effected. | The army was rapidly mobilized. | | Confirmation of these reports cannot be obtained. | These reports cannot be confirmed. |
Compare the “The export of gold was prohibited,”
in which the predicate “was prohibited” expresses
something not implied in “export.”
The habitual use of the active voice makes for forcible
writing. This is true not only in narrative principally
concerned with action, but in writing of any kind. Many
a tame sentence of description or exposition can be made
lively and emphatic by substituting a verb in the active
voice for some such perfunctory expression as , or
.
| There were a great number of dead leaves lying on the ground. | Dead leaves covered the ground. | | —- | —- | | The sound of a guitar somewhere in the house could be heard. | Somewhere in the house a guitar hummed sleepily. | | The reason that he left college was that his health became impaired. | Failing health compelled him to leave college. | | It was not long before he was very sorry that he had said what he had. | He soon repented his words. |
11. Put statements in positive form.
Make definite assertions. Avoid tame, colorless, hesitating, non-committal language. Use the word as a means of denial or in antithesis, never as a means of evasion.
| He was not very often on time. | He usually came late. | | —- | —- | | He did not think that studying Latin was much use. | He thought the study of Latin useless. | | is rather weak in spots. Shakespeare does not portray Katharine as a very admirable character, nor does Bianca remain long in memory as an important character in Shakespeare’s works. | The women in are unattractive. Katharine is disagreeable, Bianca insignificant. |
The last example, before correction, is indefinite as well
as negative. The corrected version, consequently, is
simply a guess at the writer’s intention.
All three examples show the weakness inherent in the word
. Consciously or unconsciously, the reader is dissatisfied
with being told only what is not; he wishes to
be told what is. Hence, as a rule, it is better to express
even a negative in positive form.
| not honest | dishonest | | —- | —- | | not important | trifling | | did not remember | forgot | | did not pay any attention to | ignored | | did not have much confidence in | distrusted |
The antithesis of negative and positive is strong:
Not charity, but simple justice.
Not that I loved Caesar less, but Rome the more.
Negative words other than are usually strong:
The sun never sets upon the British flag.
12. Use definite, specific, concrete language.
Prefer the specific to the general, the definite to the vague, the concrete to the abstract.
| A period of unfavorable weather set in. | It rained every day for a week. | | —- | —- | | He showed satisfaction as he took possession of his well-earned reward. | He grinned as he pocketed the coin. | | There is a general agreement among those who have enjoyed the experience that surf-riding is productive of great exhilaration. | All who have tried surf-riding agree that it is most exhilarating. |
If those who have studied the art of writing are in accord on any one point, it is on this, that the surest method of arousing and holding the attention of the reader is by being specific, definite, and concrete. Critics have pointed out how much of the effectiveness of the greatest writers, Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, results from their constant definiteness and concreteness. Browning, to cite a more modern author, affords many striking examples. Take, for instance, the lines from ,
and those which end the poem,
These words call up pictures. Recall how in “the Renaissance
spirit—its worldliness, inconsistency, pride, hypocrisy,
ignorance of itself, love of art, of luxury, of good Latin,”
to quote Ruskin’s comment on the poem, is made manifest
in specific details and in concrete terms.
Prose, in particular narrative and descriptive prose, is
made vivid by the same means. If the experiences of Jim
Hawkins and of David Balfour, of Kim, of Nostromo, have
seemed for the moment real to countless readers, if in reading
Carlyle we have almost the sense of being physically present
at the taking of the Bastille, it is because of the definiteness
of the details and the concreteness of the terms used. It is
not that every detail is given; that would be impossible, as
well as to no purpose; but that all the significant details are
given, and not vaguely, but with such definiteness that the
reader, in imagination, can project himself into the scene.
In exposition and in argument, the writer must likewise
never lose his hold upon the concrete, and even when he is
dealing with general principles, he must give particular
instances of their application.
“This superiority of specific expressions is clearly due to
the effort required to translate words into thoughts. As
we do not think in generals, but in particulars—as whenever
any class of things is referred to, we represent it to ourselves
by calling to mind individual members of it, it follows that
when an abstract word is used, the hearer or reader has to
choose, from his stock of images, one or more by which he
may figure to himself the genus mentioned. In doing this,
some delay must arise, some force be expended; and if by
employing a specific term an appropriate image can be at
once suggested, an economy is achieved, and a more vivid
impression produced.”
Herbert Spencer, from whose the preceding
paragraph is quoted, illustrates the principle by the
sentences:
|
In proportion as the manners, customs, and amusements of a nation are cruel and barbarous, the regulations of their penal code will be severe.
| In proportion as men delight in battles, bull-fights, and combats of gladiators, will they punish by hanging, burning, and the rack.
|
| —- | —- |
13. Omit needless words.
Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain
no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences,
for the same reason that a drawing should have no
unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts.
This requires not that the writer make all his sentences
short, or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only
in outline, but that he make every word tell.
Many expressions in common use violate this principle:
| the question as to whether | whether (the question whether) | | —- | —- | | there is no doubt but that | no doubt (doubtless) | | used for fuel purposes | used for fuel | | he is a man who | he | | in a hasty manner | hastily | | this is a subject which | this subject | | His story is a strange one. | His story is strange. |
In especial the expression should be revised out of every sentence in which it occurs.
| owing to the fact that | since (because) | | —- | —- | | in spite of the fact that | though (although) | | call your attention to the fact that | remind you (notify you) | | I was unaware of the fact that | I was unaware that (did not know) | | the fact that he had not succeeded | his failure | | the fact that I had arrived | my arrival |
See also under case, character, nature, system in Chapter V.
, , and the like are often superfluous.
| His brother, who is a member of the same firm | His brother, a member of the same firm | | —- | —- | | Trafalgar, which was Nelson’s last battle | Trafalgar, Nelson’s last battle |
As positive statement is more concise than negative, and
the active voice more concise than the passive, many of
the examples given under Rules 11 and 12 illustrate this
rule as well.
A common violation of conciseness is the presentation of
a single complex idea, step by step, in a series of sentences
or independent clauses which might to advantage be
combined into one.
| Macbeth was very ambitious. This led him to wish to become king of Scotland. The witches told him that this wish of his would come true. The king of Scotland at this time was Duncan. Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth murdered Duncan. He was thus enabled to succeed Duncan as king. (51 words.) | Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth achieved his ambition and realized the prediction of the witches by murdering Duncan and becoming king of Scotland in his place. (26 words.) | | —- | —- | | There were several less important courses, but these were the most important, and although they did not come every day, they came often enough to keep you in such a state of mind that you never knew what your next move would be. (43 words.) | These, the most important courses of all, came, if not daily, at least often enough to keep one under constant strain. (21 words.) |
14. Avoid a succession of loose sentences:
This rule refers especially to loose sentences of a particular
type, those consisting of two co-ordinate clauses, the
second introduced by a conjunction or relative. Although
single sentences of this type may be unexceptionable (see
under Rule 4), a series soon becomes monotonous and
tedious.
An unskilful writer will sometimes construct a whole
paragraph of sentences of this kind, using as connectives
, , , and less frequently, , , , , and
, these last in non-restrictive senses (see under Rule 3).
The third concert of the subscription series was given last evening,
and a large audience was in attendance. Mr. Edward Appleton was
the soloist, and the Boston Symphony Orchestra furnished the instrumental
music. The former showed himself to be an artist of the
first rank, while the latter proved itself fully deserving of its high
reputation. The interest aroused by the series has been very gratifying
to the Committee, and it is planned to give a similar series annually
hereafter. The fourth concert will be given on Tuesday, May 10,
when an equally attractive programme will be presented.
Apart from its triteness and emptiness, the paragraph
above is weak because of the structure of its sentences, with
their mechanical symmetry and sing-song. Contrast
with them the sentences in the paragraphs quoted under
Rule 9, or in any piece of good English prose, as the preface
(Before the Curtain) to .
If the writer finds that he has written a series of sentences
of the type described, he should recast enough of
them to remove the monotony, replacing them by simple
sentences, by sentences of two clauses joined by a semicolon,
by periodic sentences of two clauses, by sentences,
loose or periodic, of three clauses—whichever best represent
the real relations of the thought.
15. Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form.
This principle, that of parallel construction, requires
that expressions of similar content and function should be
outwardly similar. The likeness of form enables the reader
to recognize more readily the likeness of content and
function. Familiar instances from the Bible are the
Ten Commandments, the Beatitudes, and the petitions of
the Lord’s Prayer.
The unskillful writer often violates this principle, from a
mistaken belief that he should constantly vary the form of
his expressions. It is true that in repeating a statement in
order to emphasize it he may have need to vary its form.
For illustration, see the paragraph from Stevenson quoted
under Rule . But apart from this, he should follow the
principle of parallel construction.
|
Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method, while now the laboratory method is employed.
| Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method; now it is taught by the laboratory method.
|
| —- | —- |
The left-hand version gives the impression that the
writer is undecided or timid; he seems unable or afraid to
choose one form of expression and hold to it. The right-hand
version shows that the writer has at least made his
choice and abided by it.
By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to
all the members of a series must either be used only before
the first term or else be repeated before each term.
| The French, the Italians, Spanish, and Portuguese | The French, the Italians, the Spanish, and the Portuguese | | —- | —- | | In spring, summer, or in winter | In spring, summer, or winter (In spring, in summer, or in winter) |
Correlative expressions (; ; ; ; ; and the like) should be followed by the same grammatical construction, that is, virtually, by the same part of speech. (Such combinations as “both Henry and I,” “not silk, but a cheap substitute,” are obviously within the rule.) Many violations of this rule (as the first three below) arise from faulty arrangement; others (as the last) from the use of unlike constructions.
| It was both a long ceremony and very tedious. | The ceremony was both long and tedious. | | —- | —- | | A time not for words, but action. | A time not for words, but for action. | | Either you must grant his request or incur his ill will. | You must either grant his request or incur his ill will. | | My objections are, first, the injustice of the measure; second, that it is unconstitutional. | My objections are, first, that the measure is unjust; second, that it is unconstitutional. |
See also the third example under Rule 12 and the last
under Rule 13.
It may be asked, what if a writer needs to express a very
large number of similar ideas, say twenty? Must he write
twenty consecutive sentences of the same pattern? On
closer examination he will probably find that the difficulty
is imaginary, that his twenty ideas can be classified in
groups, and that he need apply the principle only within
each group. Otherwise he had best avoid difficulty by
putting his statements in the form of a table.
16. Keep related words together.
The position of the words in a sentence is the principal
means of showing their relationship. The writer must
therefore, so far as possible, bring together the words, and
groups of words, that are related in thought, and keep
apart those which are not so related.
The subject of a sentence and the principal verb should
not, as a rule, be separated by a phrase or clause that can
be transferred to the beginning.
| Wordsworth, in the fifth book of , gives a minute description of this church. | In the fifth book of , Wordsworth gives a minute description of this church. | | —- | —- | | Cast iron, when treated in a Bessemer converter, is changed into steel. | By treatment in a Bessemer converter, cast iron is changed into steel. |
The objection is that the interposed phrase or clause needlessly
interrupts the natural order of the main clause.
Usually, however, this objection does not hold when the
order is interrupted only by a relative clause or by an
expression in apposition. Nor does it hold in periodic
sentences in which the interruption is a deliberately used
means of creating suspense (see examples under Rule 18).
The relative pronoun should come, as a rule, immediately
after its antecedent.
| There was a look in his eye that boded mischief. | In his eye was a look that boded mischief. | | —- | —- | | He wrote three articles about his adventures in Spain, which were published in . | He published in three articles about his adventures in Spain. | | This is a portrait of Benjamin Harrison, grandson of William Henry Harrison, who became President in 1889. | This is a portrait of Benjamin Harrison, grandson of William Henry Harrison. He became President in 1889. |
If the antecedent consists of a group of words, the relative comes at the end of the group, unless this would cause ambiguity. The Superintendent of the Chicago Division, who | A proposal to amend the Sherman Act, which has been variously judged. | A proposal, which has been variously judged, to amend the Sherman Act. | | —- | —- | | | A proposal to amend the much-debated Sherman Act. | | The grandson of William Henry Harrison, who | William Henry Harrison’s grandson, who |
A noun in apposition may come between antecedent and relative, because in such a combination no real ambiguity can arise. The Duke of York, his brother, who was regarded with hostility by the Whigs Modifiers should come, if possible, next to the word they modify. If several expressions modify the same word, they should be so arranged that no wrong relation is suggested.
| All the members were not present. | Not all the members were present. | | —- | —- | | He only found two mistakes. | He found only two mistakes. | | Major R. E. Joyce will give a lecture on Tuesday evening in Bailey Hall, to which the public is invited, on “My Experiences in Mesopotamia” at eight P. M. | On Tuesday evening at eight P. M., Major R. E. Joyce will give in Bailey Hall a lecture on “My Experiences in Mesopotamia.” The public is invited. |
17. In summaries, keep to one tense.
In summarizing the action of a drama, the writer should
always use the present tense. In summarizing a poem,
story, or novel, he should preferably use the present,
though he may use the past if he prefers. If the summary
is in the present tense, antecedent action should be expressed
by the perfect; if in the past, by the past perfect.
An unforeseen chance prevents Friar John from delivering Friar
Lawrence’s letter to Romeo. Meanwhile, owing to her father’s
arbitrary change of the day set for her wedding, Juliet has been compelled
to drink the potion on Tuesday night, with the result that
Balthasar informs Romeo of her supposed death before Friar Lawrence
learns of the non-delivery of the letter.
But whichever tense be used in the summary, a past
tense in indirect discourse or in indirect question remains
unchanged.
The Friar confesses that it was he who married them.
Apart from the exceptions noted, whichever tense the
writer chooses, he should use throughout. Shifting from
one tense to the other gives the appearance of uncertainty
and irresolution (compare Rule 15).
In presenting the statements or the thought of some one
else, as in summarizing an essay or reporting a speech, the
writer should avoid intercalating such expressions as “he
said,” “he stated,” “the speaker added,” “the speaker
then went on to say,” “the author also thinks,” or the like.
He should indicate clearly at the outset, once for all, that
what follows is summary, and then waste no words in
repeating the notification.
In notebooks, in newspapers, in handbooks of literature,
summaries of one kind or another may be indispensable,
and for children in primary schools it is a useful exercise to
retell a story in their own words. But in the criticism or
interpretation of literature the writer should be careful to
avoid dropping into summary. He may find it necessary
to devote one or two sentences to indicating the subject, or
the opening situation, of the work he is discussing; he may
cite numerous details to illustrate its qualities. But he
should aim to write an orderly discussion supported by
evidence, not a summary with occasional comment.
Similarly, if the scope of his discussion includes a number
of works, he will as a rule do better not to take them up
singly in chronological order, but to aim from the beginning
at establishing general conclusions.
18. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end.
The proper place in the sentence for the word, or group of words, which the writer desires to make most prominent is usually the end.
| Humanity has hardly advanced in fortitude since that time, though it has advanced in many other ways. | Humanity, since that time, has advanced in many other ways, but it has hardly advanced in fortitude. | | —- | —- | | This steel is principally used for making razors, because of its hardness. | Because of its hardness, this steel is principally used in making razors. |
The word or group of words entitled to this position of
prominence is usually the logical predicate, that is, the
new element in the sentence, as it is in the second example.
The effectiveness of the periodic sentence arises from the
prominence which it gives to the main statement.
Four centuries ago, Christopher Columbus, one of the Italian
mariners whom the decline of their own republics had put at the
service of the world and of adventure, seeking for Spain a westward
passage to the Indies as a set-off against the achievements of Portuguese
discoverers, lighted on America.
With these hopes and in this belief I would urge you, laying aside all
hindrance, thrusting away all private aims, to devote yourself unswervingly
and unflinchingly to the vigorous and successful prosecution
of this war.
The other prominent position in the sentence is the
beginning. Any element in the sentence, other than the
subject, may become emphatic when placed first.
Deceit or treachery he could never forgive.
So vast and rude, fretted by the action of nearly three thousand
years, the fragments of this architecture may often seem, at first
sight, like works of nature.
A subject coming first in its sentence may be emphatic,
but hardly by its position alone. In the sentence,
Great kings worshipped at his shrine,
the emphasis upon arises largely from its meaning
and from the context. To receive special emphasis, the
subject of a sentence must take the position of the predicate.
Through the middle of the valley flowed a winding stream.
The principle that the proper place for what is to be
made most prominent is the end applies equally to the
words of a sentence, to the sentences of a paragraph, and
to the paragraphs of a composition.
IV. A FEW MATTERS OF FORM
Leave a blank line, or its equivalent in
space, after the title or heading of a manuscript. On
succeeding pages, if using ruled paper, begin on the first
line.
Do not spell out dates or other serial numbers.
Write them in figures or in Roman notation, as may
be appropriate.
August 9, 1918 (9 August 1918)
Rule 3
Chapter XII
352nd Infantry
A sentence containing an expression in
parenthesis is punctuated, outside of the marks of parenthesis,
exactly as if the expression in parenthesis were
absent. The expression within is punctuated as if it
stood by itself, except that the final stop is omitted unless
it is a question mark or an exclamation point.
I went to his house yesterday (my third attempt to see him), but he
had left town.
He declares (and why should we doubt his good faith?) that he is
now certain of success.
(When a wholly detached expression or sentence is
parenthesized, the final stop comes before the last mark
of parenthesis.)
Formal quotations, cited as documentary
evidence, are introduced by a colon and enclosed in quotation
marks.
The provision of the Constitution is: “No tax or duty shall be laid
on articles exported from any state.”
Quotations grammatically in apposition or the direct
objects of verbs are preceded by a comma and enclosed in
quotation marks.
I recall the maxim of La Rochefoucauld, “Gratitude is a lively sense
of benefits to come.”
Aristotle says, “Art is an imitation of nature.”
Quotations of an entire line, or more, of verse, are begun
on a fresh line and centered, but need not be enclosed in
quotation marks.
Wordsworth’s enthusiasm for the Revolution was at first unbounded:
Quotations introduced by are regarded as in indirect
discourse and not enclosed in quotation marks.
Keats declares that beauty is truth, truth beauty.
Proverbial expressions and familiar phrases of literary
origin require no quotation marks.
These are the times that try men’s souls.
He lives far from the madding crowd.
The same is true of colloquialisms and slang.
In scholarly work requiring exact references,
abbreviate titles that occur frequently, giving the full
forms in an alphabetical list at the end. As a general
practice, give the references in parenthesis or in footnotes,
not in the body of the sentence. Omit the words ,
, , , , , except when referring by
only one of them. Punctuate as indicated below.
| In the second scene of the third act | In III.ii (still better, simply insert III.ii in parenthesis at the proper place in the sentence) | | —- | —- |
After the killing of Polonius, Hamlet is placed under guard (IV.ii.
14).
i:17–27
II.iii. 264–267, III.iii. 155–161.
If there is room at the end of a line for
one or more syllables of a word, but not for the whole word,
divide the word, unless this involves cutting off only a
single letter, or cutting off only two letters of a long word.
No hard and fast rule for all words can be laid down. The
principles most frequently applicable are:
(a) Divide the word according to its formation:
know-ledge (not knowl-edge); Shake-speare (not Shakes-peare);
de-scribe (not des-cribe); atmo-sphere (not atmos-phere);
(b) Divide “on the vowel:”
edi-ble (not ed-ible); propo-sition; ordi-nary; espe-cial; reli-gious;
oppo-nents; regu-lar; classi-fi-ca-tion (three divisions allowable);
deco-rative; presi-dent;
(c) Divide between double letters, unless they come at
the end of the simple form of the word:
Apen-nines; Cincin-nati; refer-ring; but tell-ing.
(d) Do not divide before final if the is silent:
treat-ed (but not roam-ed or nam-ed).
The treatment of consonants in combination is best
shown from examples:
for-tune; pic-ture; sin-gle; presump-tuous; illus-tration; sub-stan-tial
(either division); indus-try; instruc-tion; sug-ges-tion; incen-diary.
The student will do well to examine the syllable-division
in a number of pages of any carefully printed book.
For the titles of literary works, scholarly usage
prefers italics with capitalized initials. The usage of
editors and publishers varies, some using italics with
capitalized initials, others using Roman with capitalized
initials and with or without quotation marks. Use italics
(indicated in manuscript by underscoring), except in
writing for a periodical that follows a different practice.
Omit initial or from titles when you place the
possessive before them.
The ; the ; ; ; ;
; Dickens’s .
V. WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS COMMONLY MISUSED
(Some of the forms here listed, as , are downright
bad English; others, as the split infinitive, have their
defenders, but are in such general disfavor that it is at
least inadvisable to use them; still others, as , ,
, , , are good in their place,
but are constantly obtruding themselves into places where
they have no right to be. If the writer will make it his
purpose from the beginning to express accurately his own
individual thought, and will refuse to be satisfied with a
ready-made formula that saves him the trouble of doing
so, this last set of expressions will cause him little trouble.
But if he finds that in a moment of inadvertence he has
used one of them, his proper course will probably be not to
patch up the sentence by substituting one word or set of
words for another, but to recast it completely, as illustrated
in a number of examples below and in others under Rules
12 and 13.)
Idiomatic in familiar speech as a detached
phrase in the sense, “Agreed,” or “Go ahead.” In other
uses better avoided. Always written as two words.
Expressions of this type should
be corrected by rearranging the sentence.
| My opinion is as good or better than his. | My opinion is as good as his, or better (if not better). | | —- | —- |
is sufficient; see under Rule 13.
Takes the infinitive without . The past tense
in the sense, is .
But. Unnecessary after and .
| I have no doubt but that | I have no doubt that | | —- | —- | | He could not help see but that | He could not help seeing that |
The too frequent use of as a conjunction leads to the
fault discussed under Rule 14. A loose sentence formed
with can always be converted into a periodic sentence
formed with , as illustrated under Rule 4.
Particularly awkward is the following of one by
another, making a contrast to a contrast or a reservation
to a reservation. This is easily corrected by re-arrangement.
| America had vast resources, but she seemed almost wholly unprepared for war. But within a year she had created an army of four million men. | America seemed almost wholly unprepared for war, but she had vast resources. Within a year she had created an army of four million men. | | —- | —- |
Means . Not to be used as a substitute
for .
Case. The begins its definition
of this word: “instance of a thing’s occurring; usual
state of affairs.” In these two senses, the word is usually
unnecessary.
| In many cases, the rooms were poorly ventilated. | Many of the rooms were poorly ventilated. | | —- | —- | | It has rarely been the case that any mistake has been made. | Few mistakes have been made. |
See Wood, , pp. 68–71, and Quiller-Couch,
, pp. 103–106.
Used indiscriminately by some writers,
much as others use , to intensify any and every statement.
A mannerism of this kind, bad in speech, is even
worse in writing.
Character. Often simply redundant, used from a mere
habit of wordiness.
| Acts of a hostile character | Hostile acts | | —- | —- |
With object-noun, means . May
be used with a dependent clause if this sense is clearly
involved: “He claimed that he was the sole surviving
heir.” (But even here, “claimed to be” would be better.)
Not to be used as a substitute for , , or
.
This word has been greatly overused; it is
best restricted to ingenuity displayed in small matters.
To is to point out or imply resemblances,
between objects regarded as essentially of
different order; to is mainly to point out
differences, between objects regarded as essentially of the
same order. Thus life has been compared to a pilgrimage,
to a drama, to a battle; Congress may be compared with
the British Parliament. Paris has been compared to
ancient Athens; it may be compared with modern London.
Not followed by when it means “believe to
be.” “I consider him thoroughly competent.” Compare,
“The lecturer considered Cromwell first as soldier and
second as administrator,” where “considered” means
“examined” or “discussed.”
A plural, like and .
These data were tabulated.
A needless substitute for , .
Not permissible. Substitute , , or .
Not to be misused for . The
line is sometimes difficult to draw; doubtless plays are
divided into acts, but poems are composed of stanzas.
Contraction of . The contraction of
is .
Incorrectly used for , , or
, in adverbial phrases: “He lost the first game,
due to carelessness.” In correct use related as predicate
or as modifier to a particular noun: “This invention is
due to Edison;” “losses due to preventable fires.”
A collective noun, equivalent to . Use the
singular form only.
As noun, means ; as verb, means , (not to be confused with , which
means “to influence”).
As noun, often loosely used in perfunctory writing about
fashions, music, painting, and other arts: “an Oriental
effect;” “effects in pale green;” “very delicate effects;”
“broad effects;” “subtle effects;” “a charming effect was
produced by.” The writer who has a definite meaning to
express will not take refuge in such vagueness.
Equivalent to , , and hence
not to be used if one of these would be insufficient, that is,
if the reader would be left in doubt as to any important
particulars. Least open to objection when it represents
the last terms of a list already given in full, or immaterial
words at the end of a quotation.
At the end of a list introduced by , ,
or any similar expression, is incorrect.
Use this word only of matters of a kind capable
of direct verification, not of matters of judgment. That a
particular event happened on a given date, that lead melts
at a certain temperature, are facts. But such conclusions
as that Napoleon was the greatest of modern generals, or
that the climate of California is delightful, however incontestable
they , are not properly facts.
On the formula , see under Rule 13.
A hackneyed word; the expressions of which
it forms part can usually be replaced by something more
direct and idiomatic.
| His superior training was the great factor in his winning the match. | He won the match by being better trained. | | —- | —- | | Heavy artillery has become an increasingly important factor in deciding battles. | Heavy artillery has played a constantly larger part in deciding battles. |
Another hackneyed word; like it usually adds nothing to the sentence in which it occurs. | A feature of the entertainment especially worthy of mention was the singing of Miss A. | (Better use the same number of words to tell what Miss A. sang, or if the programme has already been given, to tell how she sang.) | | —- | —- |
As a verb, in the advertising sense of , to be avoided.
Colloquial in America for , , .
In writing restrict it to its literary senses, , , etc.
The colloquial for should not be used
in writing. The preferable form of the participle is .
A common type of redundant expression;
see Rule 13.
| He is a man who is very ambitious. | He is very ambitious. | | —- | —- | | Spain is a country which I have always wanted to visit. | I have always wanted to visit Spain. |
See under But.
In the meaning , not to come
first in its sentence or clause.
| The roads were almost impassable. However, we at last succeeded in reaching camp. | The roads were almost impassable. At last, however, we succeeded in reaching camp. | | —- | —- |
When comes first, it means or
.
However you advise him, he will probably do as he thinks best.
However discouraging the prospect, he never lost heart.
Avoid this word as a perfunctory means of
introduction. Instead of announcing that what you are
about to tell is interesting, make it so.
| An interesting story is told of | (Tell the story without preamble.) | | —- | —- | | In connection with the anticipated visit of Mr. B. to America, it is interesting to recall that he | Mr. B., who it is expected will soon visit America |
Kind of. Not to be used as a substitute for (before
adjectives and verbs), or except in familiar style, for
(before nouns). Restrict it to its literal
sense: “Amber is a kind of fossil resin;” “I dislike that
kind of notoriety.” The same holds true of .
Should not be misused for .
| He had less men than in the previous campaign | He had fewer men than in the previous campaign | | —- | —- |
refers to quantity, to number. “His troubles
are less than mine” means “His troubles are not so great as
mine.” “His troubles are fewer than mine” means “His
troubles are not so numerous as mine.” It is, however,
correct to say, “The signers of the petition were less than a
hundred,” where the round number is something
like a collective noun, and is thought of as meaning
a less quantity or amount.
Not to be misused for . governs nouns and
pronouns; before phrases and clauses the equivalent word is
.
| We spent the evening like in the old days. | We spent the evening as in the old days. | | —- | —- | | He thought like I did. | He thought as I did (like me). |
in the sense of , , , is allowable, but has been so much overworked, particularly in the phrase , that a writer who aims at freshness or originality had better discard it entirely.
| Mr. B. also spoke along the same lines. | Mr. B. also spoke, to the same effect. | | —- | —- | | He is studying along the line of French literature. | He is studying French literature. |
Often incorrectly used in support of exaggeration or violent metaphor.
| A literal flood of abuse. | A flood of abuse. | | —- | —- | | Literally dead with fatigue | Almost dead with fatigue (dead tired) |
Meant to be more emphatic than , but
actually less so, because of its commonness. The same
holds true of , , , . With a
number of verbs, and form idiomatic combinations:
, , , , , , and
others, each distinguishable in meaning from the simple
verb. is not.
Not to be used for .
| Most everybody | Almost everybody | | —- | —- | | Most all the time | Almost all the time |
Nature. Often simply redundant, used like character.
| Acts of a hostile | Hostile acts | | —- | —- |
Often vaguely used in such expressions as a “lover of
nature;” “poems about nature.” Unless more specific
statements follow, the reader cannot tell whether the
poems have to do with natural scenery, rural life, the sunset,
the untracked wilderness, or the habits of squirrels.
Adverbial phrase, not yet fully accepted as
good English, though the analogy of and
seems to justify it. , or , is as good, if
not better.
Not to be used as an adjective; use .
Archaic forms, no longer in good
use. The modern word is .
Retain the in this and
similar expressions, in accordance with the unvarying
usage of English prose from Old English times.
Avoid beginning essays or paragraphs
with this formula, as, “One of the most interesting
developments of modern science is, etc.;” “Switzerland is
one of the most interesting countries of Europe.” There is
nothing wrong in this; it is simply threadbare and forcible-feeble.
A common blunder is to use a singular verb in a relative
clause following this or a similar expression, when the
relative is the subject.
|
One of the ablest men that has attacked this problem.
| One of the ablest men that have attacked this problem.
|
| —- | —- |
| Do you mind me asking a question? | Do you mind my asking a question? | | —- | —- | | There was little prospect of the Senate accepting even this compromise. | There was little prospect of the Senate’s accepting even this compromise. |
In the left-hand column, and are present
participles; in the right-hand column, they are verbal nouns
(gerunds). The construction shown in the left-hand
column is occasionally found, and has its defenders. Yet
it is easy to see that the second sentence has to do not with
a prospect of the Senate, but with a prospect of accepting.
In this example, at least, the construction is plainly illogical.
As the authors of point out, there are
sentences apparently, but not really, of this type, in which
the possessive is not called for.
I cannot imagine Lincoln refusing his assent to this measure.
In this sentence, what the writer cannot imagine is Lincoln
himself, in the act of refusing his assent. Yet the meaning
would be virtually the same, except for a slight loss of
vividness, if he had written,
I cannot imagine Lincoln’s refusing his assent to this measure.
By using the possessive, the writer will always be on the
safe side.
In the examples above, the subject of the action is a single,
unmodified term, immediately preceding the verbal noun,
and the construction is as good as any that could be used.
But in any sentence in which it is a mere clumsy substitute
for something simpler, or in which the use of the possessive
is awkward or impossible, should of course be recast.
| In the event of a reconsideration of the whole matter’s becoming necessary | If it should become necessary to reconsider the whole matter | | —- | —- | | There was great dissatisfaction with the decision of the arbitrators being favorable to the company. | There was great dissatisfaction that the arbitrators should have decided in favor of the company. |
is a political term, not to be confused
with . From the people comes political
support or opposition; from the public comes artistic
appreciation or commercial patronage.
Means a stage of transition or development:
“the phases of the moon;” “the last phase.” Not to be
used for or .
| Another phase of the subject | Another point (another question) | | —- | —- |
Not to be used as a mere substitute for or .
| He possessed great courage. | He had great courage (was very brave). | | —- | —- | | He was the fortunate possessor of | He owned |
The past participle is .
These words may usually be
omitted with advantage.
| Works of fiction are listed under the names of their respective authors. | Works of fiction are listed under the names of their authors. | | —- | —- | | The one mile and two mile runs were won by Jones and Cummings respectively. | The one mile and two mile runs were won by Jones and by Cummings. |
In some kinds of formal writing, as geometrical proofs,
it may be necessary to use , but it should not
appear in writing on ordinary subjects.
The future tense requires for the first
person, for the second and third. The formula to
express the speaker’s belief regarding his future action or
state is ; expresses his determination or his
consent.
See under Would.
Avoid, in writing, the use of as an intensifier:
“so good;” “so warm;” “so delightful.”
On the use of to introduce clauses, see Rule 4.
See under Kind of.
There is precedent from the fourteenth
century downward for interposing an adverb between
and the infinitive which it governs, but the construction is
in disfavor and is avoided by nearly all careful writers.
| To diligently inquire | To inquire diligently | | —- | —- |
Not to be used as a mere substitute for ,
. Restrict it to the sense of ,
as, “He refused to state his objections.”
A needless and awkward expression
meaning no more than the simple word .
| A member of the student body | A student | | —- | —- | | Popular with the student body | Liked by the students | | The student body passed resolutions. | The students passed resolutions. |
System. Frequently used without need.
| Dayton has adopted the commission system of | Dayton has adopted government by commission. | | —- | —- | | The dormitory system | Dormitories |
This sounds as if the writer
meant, “It will not be worth my while to write to you
again.” In making your request, write, “Will you please,”
or “I shall be obliged,” and if anything further seems
necessary write a letter of acknowledgment later.
A common inaccuracy is the use of the plural
pronoun when the antecedent is a distributive expression
such as , , , , ,
which, though implying more than one person, requires the
pronoun to be in the singular. Similar to this, but with
even less justification, is the use of the plural pronoun with
the antecedent , , , , the
intention being either to avoid the awkward “he or she,”
or to avoid committing oneself to either. Some bashful
speakers even say, “A friend of mine told me that they,
etc.”
Use with all the above words, unless the antecedent
is or must be feminine.
Use this word sparingly. Where emphasis is
necessary, use words strong in themselves.
Write , but do not misuse this,
as many do, for or .
Avoid the indiscriminate use of this word for
, , and . Many writers use it frequently as
a substitute for or , either from a mere desire to
vary the connective, or from uncertainty which of the two
connectives is the more appropriate. In this use it is best
replaced by a semicolon.
| The office and salesrooms are on the ground floor, while the rest of the building is devoted to manufacturing. | The office and salesrooms are on the ground floor; the rest of the building is devoted to manufacturing. | | —- | —- |
Its use as a virtual equivalent of is allowable in sentences where this leads to no ambiguity or absurdity. While I admire his energy, I wish it were employed in a better cause. This is entirely correct, as shown by the paraphrase, I admire his energy; at the same time I wish it were employed in a better cause. Compare:
| While the temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime, the nights are often chilly. | Although the temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime, the nights are often chilly. | | —- | —- |
The paraphrase,
The temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime; at the
same time the nights are often chilly,
shows why the use of is incorrect.
In general, the writer will do well to use only with
strict literalness, in the sense of .
Often incorrectly used for before
or similar expressions, when it is really the subject of a
following verb.
| His brother, whom he said would send him the money | His brother, who he said would send him the money | | —- | —- | | The man whom he thought was his friend | The man who (that) he thought was his friend (whom he thought his friend) |
Overworked as a term of vague approval and (with ) of disapproval. Strictly applicable only to actions: “Is it worth while to telegraph?”
| His books are not worth while. | His books are not worth reading (are not worth one’s while to read; do not repay reading; are worthless). | | —- | —- |
The use of before a noun (“a worth while
story”) is indefensible.
Would. A conditional statement in the first person
requires , not .
I should not have succeeded without his help.
The equivalent of in indirect quotation after a verb
in the past tense is , not .
He predicted that before long we should have a great surprise.
To express habitual or repeated action, the past tense,
without , is usually sufficient, and from its brevity,
more emphatic.
| Once a year he would visit the old mansion. | Once a year he visited the old mansion. | | —- | —- |
VI. SPELLING
The spelling of English words is not fixed and invariable,
nor does it depend on any other authority than general
agreement. At the present day there is practically unanimous
agreement as to the spelling of most words. In the
list below, for example, for is the only allowable
variation; all the other forms are co-extensive with the
English language. At any given moment, however, a
relatively small number of words may be spelled in more than
one way. Gradually, as a rule, one of these forms comes
to be generally preferred, and the less customary form comes
to look obsolete and is discarded. From time to time new
forms, mostly simplifications, are introduced by innovators,
and either win their place or die of neglect.
The practical objection to unaccepted and over-simplified
spellings is the disfavor with which they are received by the
reader. They distract his attention and exhaust his patience.
He reads the form automatically, without
thought of its needless complexity; he reads the abbreviation
and mentally supplies the missing letters, at the
cost of a fraction of his attention. The writer has defeated
his own purpose.
WORDS OFTEN MISSPELLED
- accidentally
- advice
- affect
- believe
- benefit
- challenge
- coarse
- course
- criticize
- deceive
- definite
- describe
- despise
- develop
- disappoint
- dissipate
- duel
- ecstasy
- effect
- existence
- fascinate
- fiery
- formerly
- humorous
- hypocrisy
- immediately
- impostor
- incident
- incidentally
- latter
- led
- lose
- marriage
- mischief
- murmur
- necessary
- occurred
- opportunity
- parallel
- Philip
- playwright
- preceding
- prejudice
- principal
- principle
- privilege
- pursue
- repetition
- rhyme
- rhythm
- ridiculous
- sacrilegious
- seize
- separate
- shepherd
- siege
- similar
- simile
- too
- tragedy
- tries
- undoubtedly
- until
- villain
Note that a single consonant (other than ) preceded by
a stressed short vowel is doubled before and :
, , . ( is an exception.)
Write , , (but not ) with a
hyphen.
Write , , , (except in
the sense of ) as two words.
VII. EXERCISES ON CHAPTERS II AND III
I. Punctuate:
- In 1788 the King’s advisers warned him that the nation was
facing bankruptcy therefore he summoned a body called the States-General
believing that it would authorize him to levy new taxes.
The people of France however were suffering from burdensome taxation
oppressive social injustice and acute scarcity of food and their
representatives refused to consider projects of taxation until social
and economic reforms should be granted. The King who did not
realize the gravity of the situation tried to overawe them collecting
soldiers in and about Versailles where the sessions were being held.
The people of Paris seeing the danger organized militia companies to
defend their representatives. In order to supply themselves with
arms they attacked the Invalides and the Bastille which contained
the principal supplies of arms and munitions in Paris.
2. On his first continental tour begun in 1809 Byron visited Portugal Spain Albania Greece and Turkey. Of this tour he composed a poetical journal Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage in which he ascribed his experiences and reflections not to himself but to a fictitious character Childe Harold described as a melancholy young nobleman prematurely familiar with evil sated with pleasures and embittered against humanity. The substantial merits of the work however lay not in this shadowy and somewhat theatrical figure but in Byron’s spirited descriptions of wild or picturesque scenes and in his eloquent championing of Spain and Greece against their oppressors. On his return to England in 1811 he was persuaded rather against his own judgment into allowing the work to be published. Its success was almost unprecedented in his own words he awoke and found himself famous.II. Explain the difference in meaning:
III. Explain and correct the errors in punctuation:
- This course is intended for Freshmen, who in the opinion of the
Department are not qualified for military drill.
5. A restaurant, not a cafeteria where good meals are served at popular prices.—
6. The poets of , for all their intensity of patriotic feeling, followed the English rather than the Celtic tradition, their work has a political rather than a literary value and bears little upon the development of modern Irish verse.
7. We were in one of the strangest places imaginable. A long and narrow passage overhung on either side by a stupendous barrier of black and threatening rocks.
8. Only a few years ago after a snow storm in the passes not far north of Jerusalem no less than twenty-six Russian pilgrims perished amidst the snow. One cannot help thinking largely because they made little attempt to save themselves.IV. Point out and correct the faults in the following sentences:
- During childhood his mother had died.
10. Any language study is good mind training while acquiring vocabulary.
11. My farm consisted of about twenty acres of excellent land, having given a hundred pounds for my predecessor’s lease.
12. Prepared to encounter a woman of disordered mind, the appearance presented by Mrs. Taylor at his entrance greatly astonished him.
13. Pale and swooning, with two broken legs, they carried him into the house.
14. Count Cassini, the Russian plenipotentiary, had several long and intimate conversations during the tedious weeks of the conference with his British colleague, Sir Arthur Nicholson.
15. But though they had been victorious in the land engagements, they were so little decisive as to lead to no important results.
16. Knowing nothing of the rules of the college or of its customs, it was with the greatest difficulty that the Dean could make me comprehend wherein my wrong-doing lay.
17. Fire, therefore, was the first object of my search. Happily, some embers were found upon the hearth, together with potato-stalks and dry chips. Of these, with much difficulty, I kindled a fire, by which some warmth was imparted to our shivering limbs.
18. In this connection a great deal of historic fact is introduced into the novel about the past history of the cathedral and of Spain.
19. Over the whole scene hung the haze of twilight that is so peaceful.
20. Compared with Italy, living is more expensive.
21. It is a fundamental principle of law to believe a man innocent until he is proved guilty, and once proved guilty, to remain so until proved to the contrary.
22. Not only had the writer entrée to the titled families of Italy in whose villas she was hospitably entertained, but by royalty also.
23. It is not a strange sight to catch a glimpse of deer along the shore.
24. Earnings from other sources are of such a favorable character as to enable a splendid showing to be made by the company.
25. But while earnings have mounted amazingly, the status of affairs is such as to make it impossible to predict the course events may take, with any degree of accuracy.
The following is a list of corrections made to the original. The first passage is the original passage, the second the corrected one.
Page 5:
of his manuscript Mr. George McLane Wood has
of his manuscript. Mr. George McLane Wood hasPage 20:
Compare the sentence. “The export of gold was prohibited,”
Compare the sentence, “The export of gold was prohibited,”Page 26:
under Rule 10. But apart from this, he should follow the
under Rule 9. But apart from this, he should follow thePage 36:
in the sense, “ordered”) is .
in the sense, “ordered,” is .Page 39:
As noun, means ; as verb, means t
As noun, means ; as verb, means toPage 39:
they ma ybe, are not properly facts.
they may be, are not properly facts.Page 42:
Acts of a hostile nature.
Acts of a hostile naturePage 45:
Dayton has adopted the commission system of government
Dayton has adopted the commission system of government.Page 48:
embarass
embarrass
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